I Don’t Want to Set the World on Fire The Manhattan Project In the midst of a war-torn world, the United States government was facilitating a nuclear research project, but what seemed to be any other experiment was in fact something far deadlier. Underneath the guise of research and seemingly unrelated operations, the true nature of the Manhattan Project was unleashed. Due to the bloody nature of the war, the means to end it with a decisive, crippling blow was necessary. The means to do so would be envisioned and brought to fruition with the birth of the atom bomb in the Manhattan Project. The nuclear bomb came into existence, spawning a new era of mankind, the very one we still live in today. The Manhattan Project is the single most significant event within the last century and its impacts will be perpetuated across the globe forever. Following the end of the Second World War, humanity quivered at the destructive force of the atom bomb. Nobody had ever conceived that such a terrifying tool of death could have ever been developed. Whereas the world previously rested upon a balance of power, the Balance of Terror, as coined by nobel prize winning diplomat Lester Pearson, now reigned supreme. In the context of the Cold War, this balance of terror devolved typical international relations into a frenzied arms race, with the United States and the Soviet Union frantically proliferating weapons of mass destruction. Both sides, however, were aware of the grim nature of their game, knowing that humanity itself could be brought to its knees with this newfound technology. This fear grew into the new measure of power, Lester adds, distinct from the measure of ability nations previously relied on for world balance. No longer was the competition about the stronger nation as a whole; anyone with an atomic weapon could guarantee international recognition through the sheer power of fear. As a result, it became evident that the arms race was far too dangerous and unsustainable. Non-proliferation treaties began in 1968 to promote cooperation for nuclear peace. While the ultimate goal of these treaties was for complete disarmament, the likelihood of such a feat remains slim. As of today over one-hundred parties have agreed to begin non-proliferation, including the U.S., Russia, France, Britain, and China. However, several nations, such as North Korea, India, Israel, and Pakistan, continue to withhold from these terms. Though the fear factor of nuclear weapons has decreased over time, their presence in international affairs still maintains an iron grip today. With the advent of the atomic age, war was irrevocably changed as well. Conventional military strategy was no longer relevant, and in its stead, methods of coercion, intimidation, and deterrence came into play. Nuclear Deterrence quickly became the prime factor in determining whether nations would come into direct conflict. The doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), first theorized by English author Wilkie Collins in 1870, assumes that two opposing sides using high yield weapons of mass destruction will annihilate each other. In 1940, means of achieving these levels of destruction quickly became a reality, as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum, written by the University of Birmingham, England, anticipated future use of nuclear weapons for deterrence. In this case, war no longer has a victor, as both sides are guaranteed destruction. As such, nuclear weapons were the ultimate deterrent, even allowing inferior powers to deter stronger opposition. Ironically, these terrifying weapons brought forth a shift towards diplomacy, as it now proved to be superior to brute force. The capacity to hurt became the new bargaining chip and nuclear weapons packed an absurd amount of such capacity. Though wars continue to rage on, World War II is the last major direct conflict amongst any world superpowers. Due to the Manhattan Project, a strange form of pseudo-peace has settled in the world's leading nations. The present day is largely shaped by the results of the Second World War, and the Cold War. The decline and eventual collapse of the Soviet Union left the United States as the sole superpower. Additionally, during the constant periods of warring throughout the second half of the 20th century, a military industrial complex has taken root within the U.S., still influencing legislation today, which is especially evident in our world record of ludicrous military spending. Much of the attention today has shifted towards the threat of nuclear terrorism. In his first speech to the U.N. Security Council, Barack Obama states that nuclear terrorism is the “single most important national security threat we face.” He continues, adding that “Just one nuclear weapon exploded in a city destabilize our security, our economies, and our very way of life.” The reality of these fears have been clearly demonstrated by former president George W. Bush’s “War on Terror”, following the events of September 11. The fear of nuclear weapon possession has sent the United States plummeting into an arduous and ambiguous cycle of never ending battle. The conflict in the Middle East has since lost steam and has grown incredibly unpopular, yet Obama continues these “Overseas Contingency Operations”. However, the threat of nuclear weapons remains ever prevalent and Cold War policy makers Henry Kissinger, Bill Perry, and George Shultz have agreed in the 2007 Wall Street Journal that these weapons have grown into a source of extreme risk, rather than a mere deterrent. Though the idea of nuclear warfare now seems distant, the stark truth remains abundantly clear - the atomic age is far from over, and as such, the threat these weapons pose still lingers in the air. In addition to stirring revolutions in politics and warfare, the Manhattan Project has spawned many interesting psychological questions and theories. For instance, the basics of nuclear deterrence assume that both sides have common peace goals - that is, they believe planetary suicide is not a beneficial goal. Also, the theory assumes that opposing sides can gauge their ability to fight accurately, and in situations where they cannot, such as the Yom Kippur War of 1973, deterrence fails to prevent conflict. Due to building tensions between Israel and the Arab nations Syria and Egypt, a war seemed inevitable; however, Israel rationalized that its possession of nuclear weapons would deter any fighting. Syria, on the other hand, believed they could win regardless, and proceeded to enter battle, thus negating the pretexts of nuclear deterrence. Another notable theory labeled the Security Dilemma, as popularized by Paul Roe of the International Politics Department in the University of Wales, arises with the advent of weapons of mass destruction. In this case, both strengths and weaknesses in national security will provoke other nations. A nations means of self protection will often menace others, and as a result, powerful nations often provoke much opposition. Similarly, if a nation is too weak, aggressors will be attracted, and these two ideas working in conjunction lead to a cycle of nuclear proliferation. These ideas all stem from a branch of study known as Game Theory in which strategic decision making is key. The Manhattan Project has brought on the need for these kinds of studies, as the world grows closer to becoming a game modeled after the mind of mankind. Other more tangible advances in technology have been made as well, as a result of the Manhattan Project. For instance, the process of nuclear fission is now used to sustain nuclear reactors and provide energy for 13-14% of the world and 19.6% of the U.S., as stated by the International Energy Agency. The destructive might of a fission bomb has been subdued and transformed into a sustained source of electricity for much of the world. Not only do these provide direct power for citizens, other uses of nuclear power include fuel for aircraft carriers, icebreakers, and submarines. Other industrial applications of nuclear technology include well-logging, which utilizes refined radiation detectors to determine suitable rocks for drilling or construction projects such as roads. Nuclear technology has medical applications as well, most notably in the form of radiation treatment. These applications allow for things such as radioactive diagnoses or even chemotherapy to kill off cancerous cells. Interestingly enough, even household devices such as smoke detectors or luminescent exit signs can be derived from the Manhattan Project, as they all utilize radioactive elements that react to serve a unique purpose. However, perhaps the greatest advance in nuclear technology is yet to come. The success of a sustained fusion reaction would in theory, provide amounts of energy rivaled by our own sun. Research for such innovations has been steadily progressing since the Manhattan Project, its development has been continuing for the last half century. This has led to large-scale projects such as the National Ignition Facility in Livermore, California, which has achieved record-levels of success in the long-term goals of fusion reaction as recent as March 15, 2012. The fields of this science only continue to grow, and the future of Earth will continue to be molded by the aftermath of the Manhattan Project. Never in the history of mankind has a single device changed so much. The birth of the atom bomb has spawned countless issues and changes to the balance of power and warfare. However, not all of these changes are necessarily bad, as many important innovations and intellectual developments have arisen. Our entire modern age is essentially the result of the Manhattan Project and as such. it stands undoubtedly as the single most important event in the last century. References Camerer, Colin. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003. Print. Hand, Eric. "National Ignition Facility Fires Record Laser Shot." Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, 20 Mar. 2012. Web. 05 June 2012. http://www.nature.com/ news/national-ignition-facility-fires-record-laser-shot-1.10269. "Important Moments in the History of Nuclear Medicine." Historical Timeline. Web. 05 June 2012. http://interactive.snm.org/index.cfm?PageID=1107. "Israeli Intelligence and the Yom Kipper War of 1973." Jewish Zionist Education. 24 Oct. 2006. Web. 05 June 2012. http://www.jafi.org.il/education/juice/service/ week11.html. Kegley, Charles William., and Shannon Lindsey. Blanton. "Page 503." World Politics: Trends and Transformation. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, 2011. Print. "Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: The Basics: What Is Nuclear Fusion?" Key Issues: Nuclear Weapons: The Basics: What Is Nuclear Fusion? Web. 05 June 2012. http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/basics/what-isfusion. htm. Key World Energy Statistics. Paris: International Energy Agency, 2004., 2007. Web. http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2007/key_stats_2007.pdf. "Nuclear Endgame: The Growing Appeal of Zero." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 16 June 2011. Web. 05 June 2012. http://www.economist.com/ node/18836134. 以上是美国10年级学生的历史课作业
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